Iraq under the British control
Iraq since 1918
British occupation
and the mandatory regime
The merging of the three provinces of Mosul,
Baghdad, and Basra into one political
entity and the creation of a nation out of the diverse religious and
ethnic elements inhabiting these lands was accomplished after
World War I. Action undertaken by the British
military authorities during the war and the upsurge of nationalism after
the war helped determine the shape of the new Iraqi state
and the course of events during the postwar years, until Iraq
finally emerged as an independent political entity in 1932.
British control of Iraq, however, was
short-lived. After the war, Britain debated both its
general policy in Iraq and the specific type of
administration to establish. Two schools of thought influenced
policymakers in London. The first, advocated by the
Colonial Office, stressed a policy of direct
control to protect British interests in the
Persian Gulf and India. Assessing
British policy from India, this school
may be called the Indian school of thought. The other
school, hoping to conciliate Arab nationalists, advised
indirect control. In Iraq itself,
British authorities were divided on the issue. Some,
under the influence of Sir Arnold Wilson, the acting
civil commissioner, advocated direct control; others,
alarmed by growing dissatisfaction with the British
administration, advised indirect control and suggested
the establishment of an indigenous regime under British
supervision. Britain was still undecided on
which policy it should follow in 1920 when events in other Arab countries
radically changed conditions in Iraq. Early in 1920 the
emir Faysal I, son of the sharif Husayn,
who had led the Arab Revolt in 1916, established an
Arab government in Damascus and was
proclaimed king of Syria. Meanwhile, a group of
Iraqi nationalists met in Damascus to proclaim
the emir 'Abd Allah, older brother of Faysal,
as king of Iraq. Under the influence of those
nationalists a revolt started in the town of Rumaitha in
the middle Euphrates. The national agitation followed that
revolt into the tribal areas of the middle Euphrates and
in northern Iraq . By the summer of 1920 the revolt had
spread to all parts of the country except the big cities of Mosul,
Baghdad, and Basra, where
British forces were stationed.
In July 1920, Faysal came into conflict with the
French authorities over control of Syria.
France had been given the mandate over Syria
and Lebanon in April and was determined to obtain
Faysal's acceptance of the mandate. Nationalists
urged Faysal to reject the French
demands, and conflict ensued between him and the French,
resulting in his expulsion from Syria. Faysal
went to London to complain about the French
action.
Although the revolt in Iraq was suppressed by force,
it prompted Iraq and Great Britain to
reconcile their differences. In Britain a segment of
public opinion wanted to "get out of Mesopotamia" and
urged relief from further commitments. In Iraq the
nationalists were demanding independence. In 1921
Britain offered the Iraqi throne to
Faysal along with the establishment of an Arab
government under British mandate. Faysal
wanted the throne if it were offered to him by the Iraqi people.
He also suggested the replacement of the mandate by a
treaty of alliance. These proposals were accepted by the
British government, and Winston Churchill,
then colonial secretary, promised to carry them out. He was advised by
T.E. Lawrence, known for his sympathy for the
Arabs.
In March 1921 a conference presided over by Churchill
was held in Cairo to settle Middle Eastern affairs.
Faysal was nominated to the Iraqi throne
with the provision that a plebiscite be held to confirm the nomination.
Sir Percy Cox, recently appointed a high
commissioner for Iraq, was responsible for
carrying out the plebiscite. A provisional government set up by
Cox shortly before the Cairo Conference passed a
resolution on July 11, 1921, declaring Faysal
king of Iraq, provided that his "Government shall be
constitutional, representative and
democratic." The plebiscite confirmed this proclamation, and
Faysal was formally crowned king on Aug. 23, 1921.
The establishment of the monarchy was the first step
in the establishment of a national regime. Two other steps followed
immediately: the signing of a treaty of alliance with
Great Britain and the drafting of a constitution.
It was deemed necessary that a treaty should precede the constitution and
define relations between Iraq and Britain.
The treaty was signed on Oct. 10, 1922. Without direct reference, it
reproduced most of the provisions of the mandate.
Iraq undertook to respect religious freedom and missionary
enterprises and the rights of foreigners, to treat all states equally, and
to cooperate with the League of Nations. Britain
was obligated to offer advice on foreign and
domestic affairs, such as military,
judicial, and financial matters (defined in
separate and subsidiary agreements). Although the terms of the treaty were
open to periodic revision, they were to last 20 years. In the meantime,
Britain agreed to prepare Iraq for
membership in the League of Nations "as soon as
possible."
It soon became apparent that the substance, though not the form, of the
mandate was still in existence and that complete independence
had not been achieved. Strong opposition to the treaty in the press made
it almost certain it would not be ratified by the Constituent
Assembly. Nor was British public opinion
satisfied with the commitments to Iraq. During the
general elections of 1922 there was a newspaper campaign against
British expenditures in Iraq. In deference to
public opinion in both Britain and Iraq,
a protocol to the treaty was signed on April 30, 1923, reducing the period
of the treaty from 20 to 4 years. Despite the shortening of
British tutelage, the Constituent Assembly
demanded complete independence when the treaty was put
before it for approval. Ratification of the treaty was accomplished on
June 11, 1924, after Britain's warning that non approval
would lead to the referral of the matter to the League of Nations.
The Constituent Assembly then considered a draft
constitution drawn up by a constitutional committee. The
committee tried to give extensive powers to the king.
Discussion on the draft constitution by the Constituent Assembly
lasted a month, and, after minor modifications, it was adopted in July
1924. The Organic Law, as the constitution was called,
went into effect right after it was signed by the king on
March 21, 1925. It provided for a constitutional monarchy,
a parliamentary government, and a bicameral
legislature. The latter was composed of an elected House
of Representatives and an appointed Senate. The
lower house was to be elected every four years in a free manhood
suffrage. The first Parliament met in 1925. Ten
general elections were held before the downfall of the
monarchy in 1958. The more than 50 Cabinets formed during
the same period reflected the instability of the system.
From the establishment of a national government, there was keen
interest in organizing political parties. Three
parties organized in 1921, one by the group in power and two by opposition
parties, had similar social and economic views and essentially the same
political objective: termination of the mandate and the
winning of independence. They differed, however, on the
means of achieving the objective. After the achievement of
independence in 1932, these parties dissolved, because their
raison d'êatre had disappeared. It was only when social
issues were discussed that new political groupings, even if not formally
organized as political parties, began to emerge. The power struggle among
these groups became exceedingly intense after World War II.
The Iraqi nationalists, though appreciating the
free expression of opinion permitted under a
parliamentary system, were far from satisfied with the
mandate. They demanded independence as a matter
of right, as promised in war declarations and treaties, rather than as a
matter of capacity for self-government as laid down in the mandate.
Various attempts were made to redefine Anglo-Iraqi
relations, as embodied in the 1926 and 1927 treaties, without
fundamentally altering Britain's responsibility. The
British treaties were viewed by the nationalists
not only as an impediment to the realization of Iraq's
nationalist aspirations but also as inimical to the economic development
of the country. The nationalists viewed the situation as
a "perplexing predicament" (al-watha' al-shadh)--a term
that became popular in Parliament and in the
press. It referred to the impossibility of government by the
dual authority of the mandate. The
nationalists argued that there were two
governments in Iraq, one foreign and the
other national, and that such a regime was an abnormality
that, though feasible in theory, was unworkable in practice.
In 1929 Britain decided to end this stalemate and
reconcile its interests with Iraq's national aspirations.
It notified Iraq that the mandate would be terminated in
1932 and a new treaty of independence negotiated. A new
government was formed, headed by General Nuri as-Sa'id,
who helped in achieving Iraq's independence.
The new treaty was signed on June 30, 1930. It provided for the
establishment of a "close alliance" between
Britain and Iraq with "full and
frank consultation between them in all
matters of foreign policy which may affect their common
interests." Iraq would maintain internal order and defend
itself against foreign aggression, supported by Britain.
Any dispute between Iraq and a third state involving the
risk of war was to be discussed with Britain in the hope
of a settlement in accordance with the Covenant of the League of
Nations. In the event of an imminent threat of war, the two
parties would take a common defense position.
Iraq recognized that the maintenance and
protection of essential British communications
was in the interest of both parties. Air-base sites for
British troops were therefore granted near Basra
and west of the Euphrates, but these forces "shall not
constitute in any manner an occupation, and will in no
way prejudice the sovereign rights of Iraq."
This treaty, valid for 25 years, was to come into effect after Iraq joined
the League of Nations. On Oct. 3, 1932, Iraq
was admitted to the League of Nations as an
independent state.
